Anyway it is a book review written about the subject. It might interest a few hopefully for the right reasons.



Sufis and Scholars of the Sea Book review and profile By Irena Knetle For the Yemen Times[/u]



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Family networks in East Africa, 1860 - 1925 By Anne Katrine Bang, published in the Indian Ocean Series, by University of Oxford, (by RoutledgeCurzon, 2003)Indian Ocean had a profound influence on the lives of the people who lived on its shores. Fishermen, sailors, and merchants traveled its waters linking the worlds earlier civilizations from Africa to East Asia in a complex web of relationship. Trade underpinned these relationships but the Ocean was also a highway for the exchange of religions, cultures and technologies, giving the Indian Ocean an identity as a largely self-contained world. It was the expansion of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam helped to define the boundaries of the “world� which by the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was one of the most prosperous and culturally complex regions on earth. By the sixteenth century Europeans were part of this “world� as partners in trade with the indigenous peoples. But from eighteenth century this economic relationship changed as the economies of the Indian Ocean “world� integrated with the capitalist economies of the West. The change from commercialism to capitalism ended the insularity of the Indian Ocean “world� and began its integration, as a region, into the global economy and its territorial division among various European powers. This transition altered the ancient web of regional of cultures. The Ocean was no longer a major force binding the peoples on its shores in a self-conscious entity, but the legacy of the past is still evident in their common religious, cultural, and historical experience.
* * *

Mwambao is the Swahili name for the East African Coast, the chosen habitat of the Swahili people. The Swahili were called Coast People by the Arabs, and the Swahili Coast was being referred to as “Murudi alDahab� or Golden Pastures. Numerous bays, creeks, and inlets, resulting from coral rock being eaten away by the sea provide excellent harbors e.g. near Mtwapa, Kilifi, Mombasa and Vanga, while the majority of the rivers are in Mozambique. The entire coast is composed of coral rock and most of it provides soft beaches, useful for landing of small crafts. The presence of water in Lamu, for example, helped to cool the hot coast climate, the choice of site ensured a maximum of fresh breeze from the sea upon the sandstone rock.

Regular rainfall has given the coast and the islands south of Equator a rich vegetation, unlike the arid Somali coast north of it. Regular trade winds brought sailors in search of resins, and gums for carpentry, furniture making, cosmetics, perfume etc. Mangrove poles growing abundantly in the Lamu archipelago were used for ship building and roof beams. Of the animal products, ivory, rhino horn and tinetcat perfume were the most sought artifacts already in antiquity. Of mineral products it has been export market for gold, while Ethiopia exported gems such as emeralds, and after year 1100 also coffee.
Arabs were traveling to East Africa with the monsoon from South Arabia and Gulf even in pre- Christian times. The earliest inscriptions were found on the island of Zanzibar, and date c. 1070 AD. There is also the oldest datable discovery of a mosque in East Africa. Arabs continued to visit the Coast and to settle there throughout the centuries as individual traders, or as empire builders accompanied by large families, or establishing themselves as independent rulers. The Arabs were known by their family names, some of which they have planted in African soil. They were identified by the region, Yemen, Oman, Hadramawt or even by the town of Muscat, Shihr, Mukella, Aden from which they sprung, even though they may have lived in Africa for generations. They made Pate, Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa and other towns their home…. Mombasa, in the land of the Zanji, boasted wonderful orchards which contained lemons and banana trees, all of which still grow in the island and rose apples. Carpets lay on the floors of the guest house. The meal consisted of rice, cooked or fried in butter dishes of meat, fowl, fish and vegetables, pickles, lemons, bananas, ginger, and mangoes. Similar meals are still served in all the Swahili towns to the present day. There were mosques built in coral stones. The Arabs functioned as teachers, and preachers, traders in all the ports along the Swahili Coast bringing their own Arabic textbooks for prayer sessions, and hymns to be sung in the mosques..

The once numerous elegant dhows connected all the colorful ports of the Swahili Coast. Then the creeks were filled up with dhows blown down by the monsoon, dhows of all shapes and rigs: from Lamu, Bombay, Persia, Gulf, and from Arabia, some high and dry, some in repair. The dhows known also as the silent wanderers of the sea, were patiently awaiting the southern breezes to blow them back to their homes.
* * *
Long ago petroleum was discovered in the Middle East, incense fragrant resins, spices and perfumed woods dominated Arab trade. Southern Arabia, and Yemen as the center of trade prospered and its maritime history is the subject of tales. The talk would be in- complete without mentioning the Yemeni era, which was an intensely human and cultural civilization that promoted and enriched various facets of social, economic and political life in East Africa. They participated actively in various dimensions of the emerging civilization, including domestic and international trade, underpinned by their vast experience in traveling the world seas. .
“Sufis and Scholars of the Sea� is an important text which synthesizes chronological and historic graphical range into its compact frame. The work researches the directly relevant histories of Hadramawt, Oman and East Africa during 1980 – 1925 through the life of one of the most influential Hadrami-East African scholars of that period Ahmed B. Sumayt.
Zanzibars future, an island off the Coast of present day Tanzania, thus was shaped by its geographical position, right in the middle of the Indian Ocean trade routes. It is a place of winding alleys, bustling bazaars, mosques and grand Arab houses, whose original owners vied with each other over the extravagance of their dwellings. It boasts not only natural beauty, rich culture, and breathtaking architecture. Zanzibar during Ibn Sumeyt time emerged as an important center of learning in East Africa eclipsing previous centers like Lamu and Mombasa.

Today Zanzibar is also the name of a town in southern Yemen while Yemeni jewe









Anne Katrine Bang is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the university of Bergen, Norway. For “Sufis and Scholars of the Sea� she did field work in Zanzibar, the Comoro Islands, and Oman (1997 – 1999) and Hadramawt (1996)
llery is sold in the shops of Zanzibar. Unlike Oman, Hadramawt does not have a history of a colonial power in the Indian Ocean. Hadramawt is known for its continuous export of people to the land of the Indian Ocean, including the East African coast. They were religious scholars, traders, cultural brokers, whose impact on both recipient and home country is a topic which has aroused much interest in recent years. To them the Ocean was no barrier rather a long established arena for cultural and intellectual exchange. With them traveled goods and ideas, word of mouth, and word in writing, fashion, and habits, linguistic patterns, and seeds for new agricultural crops and for They left their imprint on the place, the most notable being the religion of Islam, and absorbed cultural elements that were not Arab in origin, very much a two way nature of exchange. The Indian Ocean ports were not distant exotic cities, but actual real places, and where the human chain “silsila� extended through space and time.
This is the “world� into which we enter with Bangs “Sufis and Scholars of the Sea�.
The topic of this fine scholarly study is the scholarly exchange of ideas between Hadhramout the East Africa. It is the history of Islam during the nineteenth and early twentieth century. The study beautifully reconstructs the channels through which �Alawis�, a Sufi tariqa, originated in the South-Yemeni region of Hadramawt spread along the coast of the Indian Ocean. It discusses and focuses on the life of one of the most influential Hadrami-East African scholar of the period Ahmed b. Sumayt. Thru Ibn Sumayt life it explores how links were maintained, and reinforced, how their “world� related to other ideas emerging at the same times. How they formed a tight knit, a transoceanic network of individuals linked together by blood, and common experience, which remained open until well into the twentieth century when colonial frontiers came to be decisive factors, when the peoples actually transformed themselves into nations.
It researches what the “Alawis� actually thought in East Africa, what inspired their teachings, it explores their scholarly links, and further the impact of Hadrami Alawis on nineteenth century East African scriptural Islam. It places the highly scriptural widely traveled and deeply learned tradition of Hadramawt in East Africa in the frame work of Islamic learning.
The Alawis were traveling widely for seeking out knowledge beyond their local communities, and in for example Ibn Sumayt case, in his mature years he traveled equally wide to spread knowledge. As result families became not only transoceanic, but also trans-regional. .
Time flies and things change: As nineteenth century drew closer, the Allawis in East Africa, like their fellow residents in the Indian Ocean shores were exposed to European colonialism.
The central figure of this research Ahmed B. Abo Bakr b. Sumayt (1986-192) was one of the most prominent Hadrami-East African scholar of that period. Born in the Comoro Islands to a father who had immigrated from Hadramawt, Ibn Sumayt returned to his fathers homeland. He achieved his greatest fame in East Africa, as a pious man, a scholar, and as Qadi in Zanzibar. As East Africa came under colonial rule towards the end of the nineteenth century, he also acquired great respect from those British administrators who came into contacts with him. In their words “ it was he who made them appreciate the true Arab reactions to foreign rule�.
Through focusing on the life of Ibn Sumayt and his life within a network, it presents the life in the middle of a “man in the middle�. Ibn Sumayt is the link between sail ships and oil tankers, between the empires of the monsoon, via the period of European imperialism, and the ear of the notion states. Especially the later half of the nineteenth century when he saw mountain European influence in East Africa and British influence in Zanzibar.
Ibn Sumayt was also a reformer and teacher, at the same time fully aware of developments in the Middle East. We meet him as propagator of improved agricultural methods, and even discussing .new breeds of crops with friends. Ibn Sumayt importance in his works as Qadi, however, lies how the Ulama found their place in the “colonial space� as active partners Ibn Sumayt is here being presented as pious and learned man yet intensely human, and who possessed a reputation which extended far beyond the limits of Zanzibar.

Sufis and Scholars of the Sea is a fine scholarly work. It is well researched, focused in excellent presented. It deserves attention for its original approach, for the wealth of unto now unpublished information. It will be of special interest to scholars, researchers, students but also as general reading to all those interested in the role and contribution of the Yemeni Hadrami Arab scholars to the history and culture of the Indian Ocean. ‘Sufis and Scholars of the Sea� is also a tribute to Yemeni Hadrami scholars and to Yemen. It should be made available also to the Arabic speaking audience.
Anne Katrine Bang is on her way to become also an acclaimed novel writer. She just published her second novel under the title “Roots in Reality� which is – of course – set in Tarim, in Yemen. On the occasion of presenting both of her books to the Norwegian public recently, the leading Norwegian newspaper “Aftenposten� published a lengthy interview with Bang under title “Yemen 2 x�.

http://www.yementimes.com/article.sh...munity&a=1

[size=PENETRATION OF ISLAM IN EASTERN AFRICA][/size]

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Ahmed Binsumeit A. Badawy Jamalilyl

Senior Biomedical Scientific Officer

Dept. of Microbiology,

College of Medicine

Qaboos University,

Muscat,

Sultanate of Oman



E-mail: khitamy@yahoo.com

Khitamy@hotmail.com

khitamy@omantel.net.om

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[size=Abstract][/size]

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This paper discusses the earliest travelers who visited the East African coast years before the dawn of Islam, and analyses the various strategic factors, which led Prophet Muhammad (SA.W.) command his companions to immigrate to Abyssinia and the impact of this immigration on the penetration of Islam in the East coast of Africa.

Further attempt has been made to analyse authentic traditions of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W), and the various findings, which suggest that Islam came to the East Coast of Africa from Ethiopia during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.), and probably before his immigration to Medina. Among the various findings are remains of two mosques, one above the other, in Shanga, a town near Lamu. The lowest being the oldest, and did not have a 'Mihrab' and its 'Kiblah' was not facing the Holy city of Makka. Masjid al Amawy of Syria was the first mosque to have a 'Mihrab', while the earliest first century mosques had no 'Mihrabs'. Archaeologists have indicated that this site in the town of Shanga and the two mosques in question are evidence of earliest sub-Sahara Islamic community.



And finally an attempt is made to probe on the impact of this early penetration of Islam from Abyssinia, and the unprecedented influence in various fields of civilization, as well as the role played by eminent Muslim scholars who modeled a powerful educational system that led to near cultural revolution, and which has helped to understand many things beyond the history of East Africa.



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It is well established that the East Coast of Africa has had contacts with maritime India and Red Sea civilizations many centuries before the advent of Islam. Amongst the earliest visitors were Assyrians and Sumerians from Iraq, where the earliest civilization of the world arose some 7,000 years ago. They ventured out to sail the oceans seeking new worlds and fortunes, and subsequently discovered the route to the East Coast of Africa. This belief that the Assyrians and Sumerians were among the first to visit East Africa is supported by a number of historical and archaeological findings. To this day, the black magic practiced by the coastal natives of East Africa is identical to the kind known to have existed during the Assyrians and Sumerians era. The Assyrian writings and sculptures constantly used the symbol[size= ][/size]of a horn to signify strength and chieftainship[size=[1]][/size]. In Lamu, Manda, Pate and various other coastal towns, the early chieftains also used the horn to show their power and authority. In Swahili language this two meters long, beautifully curved side-blown horn, ‘a symbol of authority’ is called Siwa. The Lamu Siwa is made of bronze. Others are made of ivory and silver.

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After the Assyrians and Sumerians era and before the dawn of Islam, history tells us that the coastal natives were familiar with the annual seasonal visits of dhows from Arabia and Persia during the southerly winds blowing around January. These dhows brought lances, hatchets, daggers, awls, beads, wheat and other merchandise for trade and barter. When these dhows returned to their respective homes during the northerly monsoon winds in the months of March and June, they were stocked with ivory, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, wax, animal skin, coconut oil and other raw materials. The anonymous Greek traveler who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, recorded in his book ‘Periplus of the Erythrean sea’, written in 60 AD, that he had seen trade being carried out between the local inhabitants of the East African Coast and the Arab merchants. He mentioned the existence of several ports along the coast on the trade with Arabia in cloth, grain, oil, sugar and cooking oil. This unknown Greek merchant whose book the ‘Periplus’ – a Greek word for Guide Book and ‘Erythrean Sea’ meaning Indian Ocean also mentioned fish traps, dugout canoes and sewed boats (mitepe?)[2][size=. ][/size]

Before the dawn of Islam, the Aksum Kingdom (in what is now Ethiopia and Eritrea) was well established and flourishing. The kingdom was at its height of power in the 300’s AD under King Ezan who made Christianity the official religion of Aksumu. Adulis, its port near what is now Mitsiwa (Massawa) in present-day Eritrea, was a world-trading centre. Ivory, raw materials, spices and gum arabica, (a gum used in making medicine and glue) were traded to merchants from the Arabian peninsula (including the Quraish of Makka), Egypt, Greece, Rome, Persia, India, Ceylon and East Coast of Africa. At its peak, the kingdom of Aksumu occupied some of the coastal towns of East Africa. The Arabs and the Persians were trading with the East African coastal towns for years before the advent of Islam. Goods and commodities from Adulis port of Abyssinia were traded in the coastal towns, and the Arabs built for themselves various trading settlements along the fringe of the coast and the islands that lay a few miles away from the shoreline.[3][size= ][/size]

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When Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.) started inviting the people of Makka to Islam in the year 610 AD, the pagan Quraish unleashed their fury by torturing and persecuting those who had accepted the religion of Islam. Life became unbearable for Muslims. They asked permission to immigrate to Abyssinia. Before giving them the go-ahead, the Prophet first sent three emissaries on a reconnaissance mission to determine the possibility of his companions being welcomed if they sought asylum in Abyssinia. The emissaries were consist of a businessman, spokesman and a guide, who spent two to three months on this fact-finding mission[4][size=. ][/size]After getting the clearance and assurance, the Prophet then allowed his companions to immigrate, informing them that Habasha (Abyssinia) was a Christian kingdom where[size= ][/size]“a king rules without injustice, a land of truthfulness – until Almighty God leads us to a way out of our difficulty�[5].



Choosing Abyssinia as the best alternative country of immigration was based on the following factors, which were to prove strategic and subsequently resulting in the earlier introduction of Islam to the Eastern African coast before neighbouring Arab countries, and probably before Madina, "the City of the Prophet" after the Hijra.



· Ethiopia was not a strange country to the Quraish of Makka as well as to Prophet Muhammad. The Quraishi knew about the country and its people and had trade links with it for years before Islam. The Arabs were visiting Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Yemen with their trade caravans during the winter seasons.

· A number of the Prophet's companions, including Sayyidna Abubakar (the first Caliph and closest personal friend of the Prophet), Sayyidna Uthman bin Affan (the third Caliph of Islam and one of the earliest converts to Islam) and Sayyidna Abdulrahman bin Awf (one of the earliest converts to Islam and one of the ten to whom the prophet explicitly promised paradise) had visited Abyssinia before the advent of Islam. They were conversant with the country and the people, and had trade links and contacts.



· Prophet Muhammad had ancestral and emotional links with Ethiopia. He was a direct descendant of Sayyidna Ismail (A.S.W.) the elder son of Prophet Ibraham (A.S.W)[6][size=, ][/size]whose mother Hajar was an Ethiopian. Sarah, the first wife of Prophet Ibraham (A.S.W) advised her husband to get married to his Ethiopian housemaid Hajara, hoping that Sayyidna Ibraham (A.S.W) might get a child from her. Her hopes and prayers were answered and Sayyidna Ibraham (A.S.W) got a son, Ismail from this Ethiopian maid. Hence, genealogically Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) had Ethiopian blood from Hajara, the mother of Prophet Ismail (A.S.W).

· Thuwaiba, a freed slave girl from Abyssinia was the first woman to suckle Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W). When Abu Lahb heard the news that his brother Abdalla got a baby boy he was extremely delighted. He immediately emancipated his Ethiopian slave girl, Thuwaiba and told her to go to Amina and wet nurse the new born boy[7][size= ][/size]



· Further more, Prophet Muhammad’s another wet nurse[8] and foster mother was an Ethiopian housemaid called Baraka (Um Ayman). Prophet Mohammad used to address her:“Oh Um Aymam, my mother after my own mother�. These genetical coded-bonds through breast-feeding from Thuwaiba and Um Ayman, together with the ancestral link are important factors in the analysis of the immigration of the companions of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) to Abyssinia.



· There were a number of Ethiopians in the city of Makka. These Ethiopians were working, as traders, labourers, housemaids and some were slaves. Most of this underprivileged group of aliens was among the first to accept the new faith. Sayyidna Bilal was an example of this class. Therefore, the immigrants were well informed about the country, which was to become their second home.



· The Makkans used to enjoy great respect among all Arabs. They were looked upon as the custodian of the Holy Shrine – The Kaaba, which was the object of pilgrimage from earliest times in the history of Arabs. Every Arab sought to travel to it. In it, the holy months ( أشهر الØ*رم ) were observed with far more ado than anywhere else. The Arabs used to come with their trade caravans during the holy months and enjoyed absolute security. In return, the Quraish were highly respected whenever they visited other countries and enjoyed the same security wherever they went. The Prophet's companions most of them being from Quraishi clan did not anticipate problems when they decided to immigrate. There fore they could have chosen any of the lands they had trade links with, except they chose Abyssinia for the reasons explained above as well as for the fact that they as the Prophet put it when advising his companion to immigrate to a Christian kingdom where “ a king rules without injustice, a land of truthfulness – until Almighty God leads us to a way out of our difficultyâ€?[9][size=. ][/size]

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[size=Immigration to Ethiopia:][/size]

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The first group of twelve men and four women including Sayyidna Uthman bin Afaan and his wife Ruqaya (the daughter of the Prophet Mohammad) ), Zubyr ibn Awaam, Abdulrahman ibn Awf, Uthman ibn Mat-uwn and Musab ibn Omyri left for Abyssinia in the month of Rajab 615 AD, the fifth year of the Prophet's mission. They took a boat from seaport of Shu'aibah, west of present-day Jeddah port, and sailed passing through the famous Dahlak Island to Zula seaport, adjacent to an important commercial town of Adulis. From Zula to Aksumu, the capital of Aksumu kingdom was a five-day march. After a few months, a second group of 83 men and 11 women led by Jaafar ibn Aby Talib (a cousin of the Prophet Muhammad) and his wife Asma followed suit, taking the same sea route.



These two groups consisted of key and da'awah committed persons who were also very close to the Prophet, factors that contributed greatly to the success of their mission in growing the seeds of spreading Islam in Ethiopia and beyond.

Very soon the immigrants settled down in the new land under the care and protection of Negus, the just and the righteous ruler of Abyssinia. They started, for the first time since they became Muslims, to savour the test of freedom and security and enjoyed the sweetness of worshiping undisturbed.

In Makka, this immigration started a great hue and cry for two good reasons. Firstly, there was hardly any family of the Quraish, which did not loose a son, son-in-law, a daughter, a brother or a sister. Secondly, the Quraish realized that the emigration of this elite group will definitely have a strong impact in Abyssinia and their message shall attract new converts among the Abyssinians and beyond, and this will be a threat to their own sovereignty. Hence the Quiraish sent two emissaries, Amru ibn Aby al Aas and Abdalla ibn Aby Taby'ah to the Negus of Abyssinia to persuade him to reject the Muslim immigrants as outlaws. They came with some precious gifts to the Negus and for the courtiers of the Negus. To confound the accusations the leader of the Muslim delegation, Jaafar bin Aby Talib, recited to the Negus the verse of the Koran which speak of Mary (19:16-24)[10]. This recitation convinced the Abyssinians that the Muslims had received a revelation akin to their own. The Negus then returned the gifts to the two emissaries, saying, " I don’t accept bribes"[11]. He then addressed the immigrants: " You are Welcome in my country, and you can stay here in peace."[12].

With this political asylum at the Aksumu court, and the royal protection, the Muslim immigrants were able for the first time to practice their religion with full freedom and actively involved in da'awah. They were using their expertise in business and trade in enhancing the Islamic image, as most of them were professional merchants who had trade links with Abyssinia years before the advent of Islam.[13]



Seeing this rapid growth of Islam in his kingdom, the Negus dispatched a delegation of seventy priests to Makka to meet Prophet Muhammad and to find out more about Islam.[14]. This was the first foreign delegation to visit Prophet Muhammad. The Prophet recited to them " Yasin, By the Koran, full of wisdom (36:1-2) until he completed the whole chapter to the end. They listened attentively and wept. They then embraced Islam[15]. The Quraish were disturbed with this development and tried to discourage them from accepting Islam, but their efforts were in vain as the Ethiopians just ignored them. These were the first Christians to accept Islam, and Almighty God revealed verses 52 to 55 of chapter 28 in praise of their stand and subsequent reward in the hereafter[16].



The conversion to Islam of the Abyssinian's Christian delegation, and few years later the conversion of the King (the Negus)[17] himself to Islam, was an additional force in the spread of Islam in the region. Subsequently all the heterogeneous peoples of the Red sea towns from Massawa to Zeila on the coast in present-day Djibouti, and off-lying Dahlak archipelago and Buri peninsula embraced Islam. From these towns, Islam spread among the nomads of the lowlands neighbouring the coast, like Bega and Afar (or Afar-Dankil). Islamic expansion was connected with trade, and traders from the coast were active throughout the region. Within a short period, there were numerous Islamic communities throughout northeastern and southern-eastern regions of Aksumu kingdom and a string of trade-based Muslim principalities along the trade routes leading inland from Zeila. The eastern plain and the Harar plateau region where the nomadic tribes of Afar (or afar-Dankil) Somali, Beja, Saho and Galla became wholly Muslim region. (See map below)





Islam: from Abyssinia (Ethiopia) to East Coast of Africa



For centuries, even before the advent of Islam, there had always been contacts between East African coast and Abyssinia, Southern Arabia, Persia and Western Asia and beyond. Traders who sailed to East African coast took advantage of monsoon winds to visit these shores in pursuit of commercial opportunities. Roman coins have been discovered at the coast, and coins belonging to Persian, and Sassanid empires near Baghdad. The Coast also had strong links with Hamyarite Kingdom of South Arabia, which lasted from 155 BC to 300 AD[18] In support of this, Dr. Mark Horton of National Museum of Kenya had discovered materials in Shanga[19] dated from pre-Islamic period including ‘egg shell’ ‘stoneware’, and ‘local earth wares’[20] from the said kingdom.



The already existing historical contacts and the trade activity between Abyssinia and East Africa was further strengthened and became more active and flourishing with the establishment of Islam in Abyssinia. Hence, Islam in East Coast of Africa made its first impressions through commercial exchange between the coastal people and the Muslim traders. It is strongly believed that the Muslim traders from Abyssinia, introduced Islam in these shores during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W), and probably before his emigration to Madina. There are evidences from archaeological findings, written records and oral traditions, which indicate that the East African coast was the scene of the earliest sub-Saharan Islamic community. The earliest and most detailed evidence so far discovered of an Islamic presence in East Africa has been at Shanga in the Lamu archipelago.

Dr. Mark Horton and Dr. Richard Wilding’s team of National Museum of Kenya have recovered a site in Shanga, which indicates that it was the earliest sub-Saharan Islamic community. At this site they uncovered among other things, two mosques on above the other, the lowest being the oldest. They also uncovered a Muslim site. Mark Horton, a reputable archaeologist estimated the dates of these two sites to fall within the range of 675- 850 A.C.[21]. It was established beyond any doubt that these two buildings are mosques, and that the lowest mosque was a simple unroofed enclosure, without a Mihrab and its Kibla was not oriented towards Ka'bah in Makka (359°). With these findings, I would conclude with the following observations:



· Muslims started building mosques after Miraj (ascension) in 621 AD when Allah ordered the Muslims to establish the Friday and daily Five-Time prayers. Hence Shanga Muslim community may have built the mosque in question after 621, when Prophet had migrated to Madina.



· For the first seventeen months after the emigration to Madina Muslims built their mosques and buried their dead, facing the direction of Jerusalem. The direction was then changed to the direction of Makka. And probably this is the case of the lower mosque as well as the older tombs which faced as much as 50° off the true direction of Makka, towards the direction of Jerusalem. They are aligned on 308°-310° while other tombs lying in a ground north of the Friday Mosque as well as the Mosque on top, a few years older, were aligned towards the direction of Makka, 359°[22]



· The mosque in question was a small, simple and unroofed enclosure. It could not have been built by the emissaries of Khalifa Abdul Malik bin Marwan (684-705AD) from Syria, who visited and established Islamic establishments in Lamu, Pate, Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar and Kilwa in 690 AD[23]. The emissaries were definitely aware of the new direction of Kibla and coming from the centre of learning and civilization with sophistication in the architecture of buildings.



· According to archaeological evidences, the lower mosque in question had no Mihrab, while the other mosque above it had Mihrab. A Mihrab is a prayer niche in the centre of a mosque, an architectural structure which mark the direction of Makka, and before which the Imam takes his position, and from where he leads the congregation in prayer. In the Prophet’s Mosque (or Masjid al Nabawi) at Madina, a large stone was placed against the northern wall facing Jerusalem, directing the congregation. They were, for seventeen months, facing the direction of Jerusalem when praying. The stone was removed to the southern side when the Kibla was changed to Makka. Amri ibn al-As built his mosque at Fustat, in the winter of 641-642 AD, and he placed "no hollow Mihrab" in it[24]. All the earlier mosques after the death of Prophet in 632 AD had only a symbolic Mihrab without a niche or dome like, as was the case of the lower mosque in Shanga. The outside front wall, as well as inside was plain like the other walls. The "symbolic" Mihrab was indicated by a strip of paint or by a stone embedded in the kibla wall, as was the case of the Shanga Mosque. The first concave Mihrab was introduced by Umar ibn Abdulaziz, a governor of Madina, when he built the Prophet's mosque in 706-707 AD, while the first semi-concave Mihrab was at Umayyad Mosque at Damascus built by Walid ibn Abdul Malik between 706 AD and 714-715 AD There is also an old mosque with a Mihrab in the Sultanate of Oman, in the town of Adam, dated as having been built during the reign of Sayyidna Umar bin Khatab.



· The following noted Muslim scholars and historians of East Africa, Sayyid Ahmad bin Abubakar Binsumeit, Sheikh Abdalla Saleh al-Farsy and Sayyid Abdulrahman Ahmed Badawy Jamalilyl (Sharif Khitamy), have all articulated that Muslim immigrants from Abyssinia, visited a number of East African towns on their trade expeditions, and that there are also graves in Comoro Islands, which are oriented towards Jerusalem. It seems reasonable to assume that it was these very immigrants in Abyssinia who introduced Islam to Eastern Africa, as far as the Comoro Islands during their trade missions.



Summary:



(1) Archaeologists have estimated the Islamic sites in Shanga to fall within the range of 675-850 AD. This is so far the earliest scene of Islamic community in sub-Sahara on record.



(2) The absence of a Mihrab at the lower mosque (as mentioned earlier) suggests that this was among the earliest first century Hijry mosques.



(3) The direction of its kibla, as well as the direction of the older tombs which faced as much as 50° off the direction of Makka towards the direction of Jerusalem is a strong indication that this mosque, was probably built during Prophet Muhammad’s life time, and probably when the Muslims were facing the direction of Jerusalem when praying.



(4) The presence of at least one burial of a child in Shanga is an apparent indication that there was a more permanent Muslim community at the very early stage of Islam probably during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W)



(6) The probable minting of coins by the ninth century point to the presence of a local political entity, and the names chosen on coins – Muhammad and later Abd Allah are typical Muslim names[25]



(7) The second Caliphate of Islam, Sayyidna Umar (634-644) sent expedition under the command of Amir Musa bin Umar to various East African settlements which had accepted Islam. This is another of the presence of Islam in these shores.



(8) Jaafar, son Abdulmalik bin Marwan (the Umayyad Caliph 685-705) got married to Mwana Manubi who lived in Shanga. This is a further apparent indication of an early Islamic community in Shanga.



Before the uncovering in Shanga the earliest known Islamic settlements were believed to have been built between the 10th and 14th centuries (Gregorian) as evidenced by archaeological findings in Pemba, Zanzibar, Kilwa and many other town. Horton has excavated a large Friday Mosque at Qanbatu (Ras Mkumbuu) in Zanzibar dated about the tenth century, and twelfth-century mosques bearing Kufic inscriptions at Tumbatu Jongowe and Kizimkazi in Zanzibar.[26][size= ][/size]There is also a mosque in Kilwa dated fourteenth century. It is estimated that there were more than thirty Islamic communities that had at least one mosque, and many with several.



[size=The Impact of the Early Penetration of Islam in Eastern Africa:][/size]

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It has now been established that East African Coast was the scene of the earliest Sub-Sahara Islamic community, and that Islam arrived in these shores several hundred years before Christianity. The spread and assimilation of Islam in fact enhanced the already growing trade links and communications between East Africa and the rest of the western Indian Ocean. This process which had begun centuries before Islamic era and witnessed its greatest development between 800 AD and 1800 AD (a time-frame of a thousand years), encompassed not only the coastal people, but the hinterland as well. The crucial vehicle of this process which witnessed the rapid growth of Islam was based on a number of factors such as:-



· Majority of Muslim traders who were the main sponsors of spreading Islam in the region, were first and foremost literate and pious scholars with excellent record of moral conduct. They were only involved in trade and commerce for their living, but their main goal was da'awah. The role of these traders in spreading Islam was definitely linked to the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W), who was a successful businessman himself. He is perhaps the only founder of a major religion who was once a merchant. The Kur’an and various Traditions of the Prophet encourage believers to seek livelihood in trade. It is mandatory in Islam for traders and businessmen to be acquainted with what is called 'Fiqhi al muamalah' i.e. the Islamic jurisprudence of business transactions, and these traders were versed in this field. Sayyid Abubakar bin Abdalla Binsumeit who died in Itsandaa, Comoro on January 26, 1874 was one of the numerous classic example of such traders who spread Islam up to present republic of Malagasy. He had seven dhows which he plied in his trade to all parts of the Indian Ocean[27][size=. ][/size]He was appointed a Kadhi of Zanzibar during the reign of Sayyid Majid al Busaidy. Sayyid Abubakar was a pious scholar and a writer. Among his contributions in the literature of East Africa was his famous book Fiyqq'u-Nafi'i. His son, Sayyid Ahmad bin Abubakar bin Sumeit, author of a number of books (nine of them published), followed the footsteps of his father and forefathers. He was a successful trader, who exclusively used his trade skills for da'awah and in spreading Islam throughout Eastern Africa.



· Connections with the masses: They were the enlighten leaders who descended from their "ivory tower" to the masses. From day one of the early Islamic societies, the present large gap between the intellectuals and the masses did not exist. The great Muslim traditional intelligencia, the ulama had close bonds with the general public through religion. They avoided loosing touch with the people.



· Penetration of Islam from the coast into the interior of the Kenya hinterland, particularly the central and western regions and up to Uganda was in the hands of such elite Muslim trades mentioned above. They were noted for their trustworthiness, nobleness and tolerant attitude. The Kikuyu of Nyeri referred these Muslims as wanyahoro, a Kikuyu term meaning peacemakers[28][size=. ][/size]Sharif Hassan Abdalla was among the pioneers who introduced Islam in Mumias, in Western Kenya and then into Uganda. The Tribal Chief of Mumias, Chief Nabongo Mumia who was impressed by Sharif Hassan and embarrassed Islam together with his three brothers ( Kadima, Mulama and Murunga), and a good number of his subjects and members of his cabinet.[29]. It is noteworthy that most of the Muslims who settled in the interior had gone there with no wives, and most of them subsequently got married to the local women. Such spirit of real integration was one of the factors, which contributed to the early conversion of the local people into Islam.



· The Muslim traders did not have hidden political agenda, and did not have political control over the African states. Their expertise in different fields such as herbal medicine, navigation, literature, architecture, handcraft, commerce, etc was for the service of the communities they were living in. They were mainly used as technical advisors in their respective field of specializations. They did not have nor did they seek political power.



· They shared the wealth and not monopolized it. For example when the Portuguese came to these shores they were determined to seize control of the whole region, if necessary by force. The tactic they used was to sail with heavily–armed ships into the harbours of the more important towns. They demanded the ruler of the town become the Portuguese subject and pay a heavy annual tribute to the King of Portugal . If these demands were not met, the town was attacked, and all its wealth and possessions were seized. The Muslims who were heading these towns and communities were killed for their resistance to the Portuguese occupation. The whole process was justified in the name of holy Christian against the moors. The same pattern of exploitation of its worst form was repeated with colonialists who enforced their power and control over East Africa from the nineteenth century up to the early 1960s.



· Another important factor, which enhanced the spread of Islam, was the spirit of unity and lack of divisions and racial attitude. Since the penetration of Islam on these shores up to the al-Busaidy dynasty, Shafi school of thought was the best-known creed. Even after the big migration of the Omani Arabs in the 18th century, who subsequently ruled East Africa, Islam did not experience any rift and segregation between the Ibadhi followers from Oman and the Sunni, who were the majority. In fact the Ibadhis built most of the Sunni mosques in Zanzibar. It was common phenomenon to see the followers of the Shafi creed pray in Hanafi or Ibadhi mosques and vice versa. Mosques were not racially segregated and all Muslims irrespective of their different creed have only one Kur’an. On this issue, a noted African scholar, Professor Ali Mazrui expresses his views (quoting)

"Islam has been far less compromised by racism than Christianity has been, as the result of the leadership of Europe in the history of Christianity. Because Christianity became at its most successful under European hands, and as Europeans became racist the whole religion became compromised as a result. Whereas in Islam there are no such things as racially segregated mosques. On the contrary, from the very beginning, you had racially integrated places of prayer. So on the issue of racial egalitarianism, there is no doubt at all that Islam had better record than the Euro-Christianity. And this has been attractive to the many black people both in Africa and in Black America"[30][size=. ][/size]





· The Muslim Arabs who came to East Coast of Africa and settled on these shores can be categorized into four groups. Category One Arabs are the descendants of the earliest post-Islamic Arabs, who settled on the coast as political and religious malcontents or refugees from the civil wars over the Caliphate. By the beginning of the tenth century, there is evidence of the Muslim people speaking the language of ‘Zinji’ – presumably a form of Swahili language. Category Two Arabs were the descendents of Oman, Southern Arabia and other gulf countries who settled in various coastal towns between fifteen and nineteenth century. This second group maintained its identity, etiquette and genealogical links with Arabia, and mastered the two languages fairly well. It was the arrival of Hadhrami Sayyids or Sharifs of this Category Two Arabs, which gave Islam on the coast its Shafi stamp and leaving the later Omani ruling class in minority as Ibadhis, many of who were in time converted into Shafi sect of the majority. These various Sharif clans (Sagaaf, Jamalilyl, Binsumeit, Shatry, Abubakar bin Salim, Al Beidh, etc) were famous for their piety, sterling qualities as mediators of disputes and erudition in Islamic Law (fiqhi) and Koranic exegesis (tafsiri). And most noteworthy was their affiliation with Sufi order of Alawi Tariqa. When the Portuguese came to the East Africa, they classified the population of the early sixteenth century as ‘Arabs’, Moors[31] and Negroes[32]. The Arabs as classified by the Portuguese are probably the Second Category Arabs, and the Moors are probably meant to be the First Category Arabs, and the Negroes are probably meant to refer to the natives. There are no records in Portuguese sources of a single Bantu word. All we find are Arabic names like Mohammed, Ali etc., still common to day[33]. Category Three Arabs are the descendents of various ethnic Omani clans (including many of the Al Busaidy ruling clan), and few Hadhrami clans of Southern Arabia who settled in various coastal towns between the fifteenth and the nineteenth century. The only distinguished characteristic of this group from the Second Category Arabs was that they lost Arabic as their primary language and some lost it altogether, but maintained their identity as Arabs, but could only speak the Swahili language.



[size=The Cultural Heritage of Islam][/size]

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By the fifteen century Islam was firmly established throughout the East Coast of Africa. The Portuguese were very successful in establishing Catholicism and its cultural influence in all its former territories (Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, Goa, Dama, Diu, Timor and Macao), but failed to do the same in East Africa. They never succeeded in planting Christianity on these shores.[34][size= ][/size]The Portuguese and the Christian Missionaries were confronted with two main obstacles at the coast; Literacy (the 'madrassa system of education'), and the rich Swahili Islamic culture. With regard to 'madrassa system of education’ its curriculum was concentrated on literacy in Arabic as a key to the recitation of the Koran. The Portuguese noticed the influence of Islam at the Coast, and recorded that the general system of life and the material culture although distinctively Swahili in many manifestations was in broad terms comparable to the Islamic modes of living in the Gulf area, southern Arabia and Hadhramaut. This is what led them to refer to the Muslims of East African Coastal towns as Moors[35].



The 'madrasa system of education' had three levels. Level I was the Koranic school called Chuwo (plural Vyuwo). At this level, children from the age of 5 to 16 attended, and were taught how to recite and memorize selected chapters of the Holy Kur’an, Hadiths, Fiqhi (jurisprudence), Islamic history and basic Nahwu (Arabic grammar). They were also taught how to read and write using Arabic alphabets. It was compulsory for every child to attend chuwo, and every parent took it as a holy duty to educate their children by sending them to these Kur’anic schools. It was considered a great sin for any parent to neglect this holy duty. The level II of the 'madrasa system of education' was called darasa umumi (public sessions). These darasa umumi were usually held between Maghrib (sunset) prayers and Ishaa (evening) prayers. Some sessions were extended after the Ishaa prayers. Students who had graduated from the chuo level, the working class and the elderly people attended these darasa umumi. Ulumil Kur’an (sciences of the Holy Kur’an) ulumil Hadith (the sciences of the Traditions of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) and Islamic jurisprudence were taught. The third level of 'madrasa system of education' was referred to as darasa khususi (private sessions). This was equivalent to college level for those who wished to major in Islamic studies and become ulamaa. Each alim in town was known for his field of specialization. For example, in the town of Lamu, Sayyid Ali bin Abdalla Jamalilayl was highly reputed as a scholar of Tasawuf, and was considered as Imam Ghazali of the twentieth century. He was best remembered for being the very epitome of al- Ghazali’s opus Ihya Ulumi ddyn. He mirrored Ghazali’s work fully. All those who studied Sufism had to pass through his hands. Students from other towns used to travel to Lamu to study under him. Sheikh Muhammad bin Fadhil al-Bakry was an expert in Islamic Jurisprudence, Sayyid Alwy bin Abubakar al- Shatry was an expert in the sciences of the Holy Kur’an, Sayyid Abubakar bin Sayyid Abdulrahman al-Husseiny (Mwenye Mansab) was an expert in the sciences of the Tradition of the Prophet, and Sheikh Abubakar al-Maawy was reputed in Arabic and sciences of metrics in poetry. These darasa khususi were held at the alim’s house or at his mosque, depending upon the alim’s choice. A student may take from four to six years to graduate.



It was a very common phenomenon to see students of Level Three traveling to different towns to study under a particular alim who was an expert in a particular field. Fore example Sheikh al-Amin bin Ali al- Mazrui used to travel to Zanzibar to study under Sheikh Abdalla Bakathir and Sayyid Ahmed bin Abubakar Binsumeit[36] It was also a common practice for students to pursue higher education in Makka and Hadhramaut.



[size=Exchange Program][/size][size=:][/size]

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From thirteenth century up to post-colonial era, the exchange program between ulamaa within East African cities as well as ulamaa from Arab world was at its peak form, in a manner unprecedented in the academic history of East, Central and South Africa, in the past and even in our present time. The local ulamaa had the tendency of visiting and settling in various towns within East Africa, and there were others who went overseas for higher education, in what is termed at our present time as post graduate studies. To site few example, Sheikh Muhyiddin bin Sheikh bin Abd Al Kahtany[37][size=,][/size] Sheikh Ali bin Abdalla bin Nafi Al Mazrui[38] Sheikh Muhammad bin Saleh Al Farsy[39], Sheikh Muhammad bin Ali bin Mselem Al Amry[40], Sheikh Muhammad bin Fadhil Al Bakry (1865)[41], Sayyid Ahmad bin Abubakar bin Sumeit, Sayyid Alwy bin Abubakar Al Shatry[42], Sayyid Abubakar bin Abdulrahman Al Husseiny (1828 – 1922)[43], Sheikh Abdalla Bakathir (1860 – 1925) and Sheikh Abdalla bin Muhammad Khatyb (3/7/1954) are among ulamaa who traveled overseas for studies and also taught in various towns in East Africa.

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[size=Assessment and Graduation][/size][size=:][/size]

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Finally the most remarkable phenomenon of these 'madrasa system of education' was the system of assessment and graduation. A student who had completed his darasa khususi from various ulamaa, and had received Ijaza[44] from each one of them, had to be assessed publicly by a panel, composed of wazee wa mui and ulamaa before being declared as an Alim. The panel would ask the student to give fatwa on various issues. He would then be required to defend his fatwas applying sources from the Holy Kur’an, Hadith, qiyas (analogy) ijma ( popular consensus) urf (local customs or traditions) and ijtihad (effort). When satisfied with his performance, the new graduate would then be asked to wear 'juba tul faqih’ ('the Jurisprudent gown' - a long outer garment open in front, with wide sleeves) and a turban, and take an oath of allegiance to respect the Law of the Island, and to apply his knowledge positively. For example in Lamu, a member of Al Khatibu family would then endorse his name as a new alim in the registration book called Silwa.

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It was this ‘madrassa system of education’ which produced indigenous eminent scholars such as Mwenye Mansab (Sayyid Abubakar ibn Abdulrahman Al Hussainy) the author of famous homiletic poem Al Inkishaf and translated a number of Arabic texts into Swahili; Sheikh Muhyiddin ibn Sheikh Al Kahtany, Sheikh Ali bin Khamis Al Barwani, Sheikh Ali bin Abdalla bin Nafi Al Mazrui, Sheikh Abdul Aziz bin Abdul Ghani Al Amawy, Sayyid Abdulrahman bin Ahmed bin Umar Al Sagaaf (Sheikh Al Islam - Mwenye Abudu), Sayyid Ahmed ibn Abubakar Binsumeit; Sheikh Abdalla Bakathir, Habib Saleh ibn Alwy Jamali Lyl, Sayyid Ahmad Al Badawy, Shiekh al-Amin bin Ali Al Mazrui and Sayyid Ali Badawy, Sheikh Abdalla Saleh Al Farsy, Sayyid Ahmad Ahmad Badawy and Sayyid Mohamed bin Sharif Said Al Beidh who (all these mentioned above and many others) had either written a number of books or left a lasting legacy in their contribution in producing eminent scholars.





Judiciary system and Kadhi's court:



Another field of interest was the existence of the judiciary system and Kadhi’s courts throughout East African towns. The existence of judiciary system implies a relatively high degree of social organization. The Kadhi's court was dealing with civil and criminal law. And in Lamu, there were two other courts. There was a court dealing with administrative law, which was composed of elders of the town with selected ulamaa. This office, in fact was acting as a Court of Appeal on issues of conflict between a client and a Kadhi. It was also the role of this office to look in the rules of conduct of askari (police officer) and the moral conduct of its citizen. A third office with the ruler of the town as its chairperson was dealing with other tribes on the mainland, in fact it was an excise in cross-boarder relations or in present-day terms bi-lateral relations. The Task of this office was to draw guidelines on client relationship with its neighbours, and guidelines for war and peace. For example, Al Bauri and Kinamti clans were assigned the responsibility of dealing with, and to maintain the relationship with Pokomos. The Pokomo tribe was a threat to Lamu security and they were good warriors. The influential Al Maawiya clan occupied the most fertile Bara land (hinterland) around Mpeketoni area. This land used to bring excellent income to the town and it was under the surveillance of this office.



[size=The Post of a Wakili (advocate):][/size]

Many coastal towns had a number of authorized agents called wakili (advocates) who were legally appointed to act for another.[45] People used to appoint wakilis to act on their behalf during their civil or criminal cases. Women were not accustomed to go to Kadhi’s Court. They preferred to maintain their privacy. Most of them used to appoint a wakili with the power of attorney to act on their behalf and they themselves would not appear in court.

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[size=][/size]There was a dispute among the Muslims of Cape Town, South Africa in 1933, which was blown out of proportion. They wrote to the Mufti of Makka, Sheikh Muhammad Babsayl for his intervention. Sheikh Muhammad deputed Shiekh Abdalla Bakathir, a Lamu born eminent scholar residing in Zanzibar, for this task. Sheikh Abdalla traveled to Cape Town, settled the dispute and built a madrassa for them. This is one of the many examples, which demonstrate how the early penetration, spread and assimilation of Islam linked the Muslim community of East Africa with the outside world. This is in addition to the role Islam played in modeling the rich Swahili culture, Swahili and Islamic literature, architecture, the 'madrassa system of education', assessment of ulamaa and an excellent judiciary system model.

interesting post! thank you for sharing this widom. From an east african born its good to see some interest emerging on the swahilli peoples.

Haven't been able to read it all, but its seems interesing that africa has such ann important role in Islam and that arabs are far more black/african than they dare to admit

@FLOW

Good post on the History but I would also like to point out that not only in UK that civil liberties are undeer threat..its also in East Africa where governments have been under tremendous preassure to keep the so called religious fanatics in order by detaining them without trial.Imagine people from diffrent religions have had a good relations until 9/11. theoretically its a known fact that Eastern Africa has been the starting point of a gradual merger between Africa and the Middle East. Sudan, Somalia and the Swahili Coast have been the vanguard.

and this is due to several tendencies have stimulated new thinking about African-Arab relations one being negative but potentially unifying – the war on terrorism. The new international terrorism may have its roots in injustices perpetrated against such Arab people as Palestinians and Iraqis, but the primary theater of contestation is blurring the distinction between the Middle East and the African continent. In order to kill twelve Americans in Nairobi in 1998, over two hundred Kenyans died in a terrorist act at the United States Embassy in Nairobi.In 2002 a suicide bomber in Mombasa, Kenya, attacked the Israeli-owned and Israeli-patronized Paradise Hotel. Three times as many Kenyans as Israelis died.

African countries like Uganda, South Africa, Tanzania and Kenya have been under American pressure to pass anti-terrorist legislation – partly intended to control their own Muslim populations and partly targeted at potential Al-Qaeda infiltrators. Uganda and Tanzania and others have already capitulated to American pressure.